时间:2018-12-18 作者:英语课 分类:128 The Zombie Project


英语课

  Most students are usually introduced to the study of history by way of a fat textbook and become quickly immersed in a vast sea of names, dates,events and statistics. The students' skills are then tested by examinations that require them to show how much of the data they remember; the more they remember, the higher their grades. From this experience a number of conclusions seem obvious: the study of history is the study of "facts" about the past; the more "facts"you know,the better you are as a student of history. The professional historian is simply one who brings together a very large number of "facts". Therefore students often become confused upon discovering that historians often disagree sharply even when they are dealing 1 withe the same event.

Their common-sense reaction to this state of affairs is to conclude that one historian is right while the other is wrong. And presumably, historians who are wrong will have their "facts" wrong. This is seldom the case, however. Historians usually all argue reasonably and persuasively 2. And, the "facts"---the names,dates, events, statistics--ussally turn out to be correct. Moreover, they often find that contending historians more or less agree on the facts; that is , they use much the same data. They come to different conclusions because they view the past form a different perspective. History, which seemed to be a cut-and -dried matter of memorizing "facts," now becomes a matter of choosing one good interpretation 3 form among many. Historical truth becomes a matter of personal preference.

This position is hardly satisfying. They cannot help but feel that two diametrically opposedpoints of view about an event cannot both be right; yet they lack the ability to decide between them.

To understand why historians disagree, students must consider a problem they have more or less taken for granted. They must ask themselves what history really is .

In its broadest sense, history denotes the whole of the human past. More restricted is the notion that history is the recorded past, that is , that part of human life which has left some sort of record such as folk tales, artifacts, or written documents. Finally, history may be defined as that which historians write about the past. Of course the three meanings are related. Historians must base their accounts on the remains 4 of the past, left by people. Obviously they cannot know everything for the simple reason that not every event, every happening, was fully 5 and completely recorded. Therefore the historian can only approximate history at best. No one can ever claim to have concluded the quest.

But this does not say enough. If historians cannot know everything because not everything was recorded, neither do they use all the records that are available to them. Rather, they select only those records they deem most significant. Moreover, they also re-create parts of the past. Like detectives, they piece together evidence to fill in the gaps in the available records.

Historians are able to select and create evidence by using some theory of human motivations and behavior Sometimes this appears to be easy, requiring very little sopistication and subtlety 6. Thus, for example, historians investigating America's evtry into World War I would probably find that the sinking of american merchant ships on the high seas by German submarines was relevant to their discussion. At the same time, they would most likely not use evidence that President Woodrow Wilson was dissatisfied withe a new hat he bought during the first months of 1917. The choice as to which fact to use is based on a theory--admittedly, in this case a rather crude theory, but a theory nonetheless. It would go something like this: National leaders contemplating 7 war are more likely to be influenced by belligerent 8 acts against their countries than by their unhappiness with their haberdashers.

If the choices were as simple as this ,the problem would be easily resoved. but the choices were not so easy to make. Historians investigating the United States' entry into World Was I will find in addition to German submarine warfare 9 a whole series of other facts that could be relevant to the event under study. For instance, they will find that the British government had a propaganda machine at work in the United States that did its best to win public support for the British cause. They will discover that American bankers had made large loans to the British, loans that would not be repaid in the event of a British defeat. They will read of the interception 10 of the "zimmerman Note," in which the German Foreign Secretary ordered the German minister in Mexico, in the event of war, to suggest an alliance between Germany and Mexico whereby Mexcio, with German support, could win back territory taken form Mexico by the United States in the Mexican War. Tey will also find among many American political leaders a deep concern over the balance of power in Europe, a balance that would be destroyed --to America's disadvantage--if the Germans were able to defeat the French and the British and thereby 11 emerge as the sole major power in Europe.

What the are historians to make of these facts? One group could simply list them .By dong so, they would be making two important assumptions: (1)those facts they put on their list are the main reasons, while those they do not list are not important; and (2)those things they put on their list are of equal importantance in explaining the U.S. role.But another group of historians might argue that the list is incomplete in that it does not take into account the generally pro-British views of Woodrow Wilson, views that disagreement among the historians. Moreover, because the second group raise the question of Wilson's views, they will find a number of relevantfacts that the first group his teachers, the books he read, and the books he wrote. In short, although bothgroups of historians are dealing with the same subject they will come to different conclusions and use different facts to support their points of view. The facts selected, and those ignored, will depend not on the problem studied but on the points of view of the historians.

Similarly a third group of historians might maintain that the various items on the list should not be given euqal weight, that one of the reasons listed, say, bankers' loans,was most important. The theory here would be that economic matters are the key to human motivation, and that a small number of wealthy bankers have a disproportionate ability to influence government.

In the examples given, historians disagree because they begin from different premises 12. But there is still another realm of disagreement which stems form something rather different. Historians sometimes disagree because they are not really dicussing the same thing. Often they are merely considering different levels of cause and eeffect, Suppose the teacher asked you "Why were you late for class this morning?" "I was late for class," you explained, "because I overslept." Or to use a historical example, "The Civil War began because South Carolina shore batteries opened fire on the federal garrison 13 at Fort Sumter on April 12,1861." Neither statement can be faulted on the grounds that it its inaccurate 14; at the same time, however, neither is sufficient as an explanation of the event being considered. The next question is obvious.Why did you oversleep, or why did relations between one state and the Fedeal government reach the point where differences had to be settled by war? In other words, we have to go beyond the proximate cause and probe further and further. but as we dig more deeply into the problem, the answer becomes more difficult and comples. In the end, you might argue that the ultimate cause of your being late was the fact that you were born, but obviously this goes too far back to be meaningful. Taht you were born is of course a necessary foctor, but it iis not a sufficient factor; it does not really tell enough to explain your behavior today. Similarly you could trace the cause of the Civil War back to the discovery of America, but again, that is a necessary but not a sufficient cause. The point at which causes are both necessary and sufficient is not self-evident. Therefore historians may again disagree about where to begin the analysis. By now students should see that the well-used phrase "let the facts speak for themselves" has no real meaning. The facts do not speak for themselves; historians use the facts in a particular way and therefore they, and not the facts, are doing the speaking.

Historians not only often disagree with others. They often disagree with themselves. Indeed they are often revising their ideas. They have to do so because they are constantly discovering new information, gaining new insights form other social scientists and mastering and using new techniques. Historians also learn form each other and benefit form international comparisons of similar events and institutions.

Can we eliminate all disagreement? If the state of our knowledge were such that it provided us with a model of unquestioned validity that completely explained human behavior, we can. But since we do nto hve such a complete and foolproof explanation, disagreements are destined 15 to remain. when students realize that there is no one easy answer to the problems historians raise and that "truth" is but an elusive 16 yet intriguing 17 goal in a never ending quest, they will find the study of history to be a significant, exhilarating, and useful part of their education.



1 dealing
n.经商方法,待人态度
  • This store has an excellent reputation for fair dealing.该商店因买卖公道而享有极高的声誉。
  • His fair dealing earned our confidence.他的诚实的行为获得我们的信任。
2 persuasively
adv.口才好地;令人信服地
  • Students find that all historians argue reasonably and persuasively. 学生们发现所有的历史学家都争论得有条有理,并且很有说服力。 来自辞典例句
  • He spoke a very persuasively but I smelled a rat and refused his offer. 他说得头头是道,但我觉得有些可疑,于是拒绝了他的建议。 来自辞典例句
3 interpretation
n.解释,说明,描述;艺术处理
  • His statement admits of one interpretation only.他的话只有一种解释。
  • Analysis and interpretation is a very personal thing.分析与说明是个很主观的事情。
4 remains
n.剩余物,残留物;遗体,遗迹
  • He ate the remains of food hungrily.他狼吞虎咽地吃剩余的食物。
  • The remains of the meal were fed to the dog.残羹剩饭喂狗了。
5 fully
adv.完全地,全部地,彻底地;充分地
  • The doctor asked me to breathe in,then to breathe out fully.医生让我先吸气,然后全部呼出。
  • They soon became fully integrated into the local community.他们很快就完全融入了当地人的圈子。
6 subtlety
n.微妙,敏锐,精巧;微妙之处,细微的区别
  • He has shown enormous strength,great intelligence and great subtlety.他表现出充沛的精力、极大的智慧和高度的灵活性。
  • The subtlety of his remarks was unnoticed by most of his audience.大多数听众都没有觉察到他讲话的微妙之处。
7 contemplating
深思,细想,仔细考虑( contemplate的现在分词 ); 注视,凝视; 考虑接受(发生某事的可能性); 深思熟虑,沉思,苦思冥想
  • You're too young to be contemplating retirement. 你考虑退休还太年轻。
  • She stood contemplating the painting. 她站在那儿凝视那幅图画。
8 belligerent
adj.好战的,挑起战争的;n.交战国,交战者
  • He had a belligerent aspect.他有种好斗的神色。
  • Our government has forbidden exporting the petroleum to the belligerent countries.我们政府已经禁止向交战国输出石油。
9 warfare
n.战争(状态);斗争;冲突
  • He addressed the audience on the subject of atomic warfare.他向听众演讲有关原子战争的问题。
  • Their struggle consists mainly in peasant guerrilla warfare.他们的斗争主要是农民游击战。
10 interception
n.拦截;截击;截取;截住,截断;窃听
  • Aerial photography can provide valuable information on precipitation, evapotraspiration, interception, and runoff. 航空摄影可提供有关降水量、蒸发蒸腾量、入渗和径流量的有价值的资料。
  • Light interception and distribution in hedgerow orchards with different alleyway widths is indicated in Fig. 56. 图56显示篱壁果园不同行间宽度的光能截取和分配的情况。
11 thereby
adv.因此,从而
  • I have never been to that city,,ereby I don't know much about it.我从未去过那座城市,因此对它不怎么熟悉。
  • He became a British citizen,thereby gaining the right to vote.他成了英国公民,因而得到了投票权。
12 premises
n.建筑物,房屋
  • According to the rules,no alcohol can be consumed on the premises.按照规定,场内不准饮酒。
  • All repairs are done on the premises and not put out.全部修缮都在家里进行,不用送到外面去做。
13 garrison
n.卫戍部队;驻地,卫戍区;vt.派(兵)驻防
  • The troops came to the relief of the besieged garrison.军队来援救被围的守备军。
  • The German was moving to stiffen up the garrison in Sicily.德军正在加强西西里守军之力量。
14 inaccurate
adj.错误的,不正确的,不准确的
  • The book is both inaccurate and exaggerated.这本书不但不准确,而且夸大其词。
  • She never knows the right time because her watch is inaccurate.她从来不知道准确的时间因为她的表不准。
15 destined
adj.命中注定的;(for)以…为目的地的
  • It was destined that they would marry.他们结婚是缘分。
  • The shipment is destined for America.这批货物将运往美国。
16 elusive
adj.难以表达(捉摸)的;令人困惑的;逃避的
  • Try to catch the elusive charm of the original in translation.翻译时设法把握住原文中难以捉摸的风韵。
  • Interpol have searched all the corners of the earth for the elusive hijackers.国际刑警组织已在世界各地搜查在逃的飞机劫持者。
17 intriguing
adj.有趣的;迷人的v.搞阴谋诡计(intrigue的现在分词);激起…的好奇心
  • These discoveries raise intriguing questions. 这些发现带来了非常有趣的问题。
  • It all sounds very intriguing. 这些听起来都很有趣。 来自《简明英汉词典》
学英语单词
acft
additional document
alar plate
anachitis
anhydrous sodium sulfate
audio-recording
bilithic filter
bowyang
braeden
bulletheads
cellular sheet pile wharf
choosest
chromoneucleoprotein
chrysemys pictas
Consumer Reports
coppice-wood
coral spot
cordierite-anthophyllite rock
crack border
cylic compound
denumerable at infinity
Dictyodrama
Dihydrocoumarone
duncer
error routine address
family Ascaphidae
finger buff
finger-pick
follow feed
football leagues
fuel knock
gabeller
Geneva Bureau
gigabarrels
gished
heavyhanded
homentropic
incestous
incremental pricing
indol(e)amine
indolic
initial free volume
inverse suppressor
jeanbandyite
key schedule
knot-head
light-weight concrete
liquor sauce
longisporin
Lord President of the Court of Session
macro-cracks
magnetic detent
megamonuments
microcosmographic
need it!
nongeriatric
nonzero queue
one's word is as good as one's bond
paediatric psychopharmacology
pareucalanus sewelli
party to a case
penis palmatus
perpendicular susceptibility
pet subject
piscinest
plain snap gauge
plug and chug
plug-finishing bur
poeciloblast
polyimidoylamidine
Posang-ni
proportion of resin present
providers
RAM refresh operation
rauning
reaction control
return flow line
round bordered pit
rug? vaginales
saddle coil magnet
Samut Songkhram, Changwat
Sepyron
Silfiac
spinal lemniscus
stabilizing tester
starting torque in air
static memory interface
stellaria uliginosa murr.var. undulata franch. et sav.
swifterly
sy
the fag end of sth
threofuranoside
tocofersolan
trade identity
transition transient
Triodanis perfoliata
uncarboxylated
under water fittings
unequaladdendum system
venae spinales externae posteriores
William Caxton
willians